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19. A famous example of such bootstrapping from the history of science is the story of Newton's prism used for his optical experiments. Italian researchers got different results using different prisms; and Newton only succeeded in establishing the veracity of his experiments once he had succeeded in imposing his prism as the standard, and he could therefore ascribe failures to replicate his experiment to defective prisms. The only way of choosing between Italian and English prisms, however, was whether or not they gave suitable results to Newton's experiments (Schaffer 1989). This interpretation has been questioned by Shapiro (1996); our thanks to an anonymous reviewer for pointing this out. |
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20. Again, similar to the story H. Becker (1982) tells of the intertwining of aesthetics with materials and conventions in his classic Art Worlds. |
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21. DRGs are used for medical accounting and rely on rearrangements of medical classifications and procedures. |
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22. This is essentially the same as what organizational theorists call the garbage can approach to decision making. Since the garbage category has a specific meaning here, we have maintained that terminology. |
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23. The original scientific aphorism, attributed to the medieval philosopher William of Occam, was ''thou shalt not multiply entities without necessity." It is often interpreted as a value of parsimony in scientific explanation; equally, here, it applies to the design of forms! |
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24. AIDS presents a similar challenge as a condition, not per se a disease, and equally protean in expression. |
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25. Roth (1963) makes an eloquent analysis of how this image has come to be a powerful one in the medical literature; he argues it is in fact statistically quite rare. |
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26. In the European context here, "sister" means "nurse." |
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27. After the 1847 Dumas novel, La Belle Dame aux Camélias. |
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28. At this point, following Dubow (1995), we stop putting quotation marks around words such as race or coloured. We trust the reader to recognize that the entire argument here opposes any essentialist or simplistic interpretation of these terms, or acceptance of racist constructions! Except in direct quotes, we conform to the MIT style of using lowercase for 'black', 'white', and 'colored'. The South African usage was not standardized. |
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29. "They will count us. My friend was checked yesterday. Count us, count us!" (authors' translation from the Afrikaans). |
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30. An early antiapartheid organization noted for greeting officials at airports and the like wearing black sashes of protest. |
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31. Although DeKlerk in 1962 attributes this to purely technical reasons, "to use descent as a test it would have meant digging far back into the past for |
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