Economists, psychologists, and behavioral and social scientists have all =
had a hand in shaping the concept of Human Capital, a term coined in =
the 1950s. More than 40 years later however, this initiative remains =
difficult to conceptualize on a research level and implement into =
successful programs. NAS took the plunge in organizing a day-long =
meeting to catalyze new interest in Human Capital. =
=
5. Briefly Speaking
New HHS, NIH, and DOD Grants Announcements; NIMH Director Announces =
Reorganization Plan
=
6. Dr. William Estes Receives National Medal of Science =
Former Federation Vice-President William K. Estes has been named the =
1997 recipient of the National Medal of Science. =
NAS Human Capital Seminar Reenergizes Old Initiative =
The concept of Human Capital has been around since the 1950's when the =
term was coined by economists Gary Becker, Ted Schultz, and Jacob Mincer. =
Psychologists worked from 1990 to 1995 to develop a six-part research =
agenda around the concept of maximizing human capital. That effort led =
to creation at the National Science Foundation of a Human Capital =
Initiative that is similarly arranged around six themes. Officials at =
the White House as well as members of Congress have been drawn to the =
concept and have been supportive of human capital programs. Despite =
these many investments in the Human Capital Initiative, it has been =
exceedingly difficult to light a strong fire under it. The reasons have =
been many: Inter- and multi-disciplinary research, as is called for in =
the initiative, is hard to conceptualize and hard to do well; that =
difficulty has been exacerbated by disputes about how basic or how =
applied research funded under the initiative should be; there have been =
contradictory fears both that the Initiative would draw resources from =
the core disciplinary research programs and that it would fail to be =
anything more than an alternative funding source for the core =
disciplines; and there has been unrest about who should "own" human =
capital--the economists who created the idea, the psychologists who moved =
it toward a research agenda, or behavioral and social scientists in =
general because, if the concept succeeds in advancing human capital, it =
will be their research that made it possible.
Despite these rough edges, nearly everyone sees the potential of this =
concept. Thus the quest for the formula that will catalyze the Human =
Capital Initiative has continued. In early June, the National Academy of =
Sciences held a day-long meeting exploring how human capital might be =
increased by focusing research on the period from infancy to adolescence. =
Springboarding from the recent White House conference on research on =
children and their developing brains, this meeting brought leading =
researchers from a spectrum of behavioral and social sciences to showcase =
knowledge now being yielded by cutting-edge research relevant to =
children. The impetus for the meeting came from Bennett Bertenthal, =
Assistant Director for Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences at the =
National Science Foundation. It is in his Directorate that the Human =
Capital Initiative resides. It was Bertenthal's hope that the meeting =
would inspire other agencies to devote resources to advancing human =
capital through increased investment in research on children from infancy =
through adolescence. The meeting, "Human Capital Investments from =
Infancy to Adolescence," was managed by Deborah Phillips and her staff. =
Dr. Phillips is Director of the Board on Children, Youth and Families of =
the National Research Council's Commission on Behavioral and Social =
Sciences and Education. =
Dr. Bertenthal repeated Gary Becker's observation that 80 percent of a =
country's wealth is bound up in the knowledge and skills of its people. =
Thus, the investment made in children and their opportunities to develop =
knowledge and skills is an investment in the wealth of the nation. That =
being the case, it seems disproportionate that each year $500 billion is =
spent on services for children and adolescents, but less than $2 billion =
is spent on the child-centered research to assure that the $500 billion =
is spent effectively. =
Seven researchers presented their work over the course of the day. =
Psychologist Jerome Kagan began the presentations with an overview of =
centrally important research areas with respect to children. He noted =
that social class is of overwhelming importance in understanding child =
development, but not nearly enough is known about class. It affects =
level of preparedness for school, largely determines the quality of =
schools a child will attend, and heavily influences educational =
attainment and life success. He also suggested that too little is known =
about the relation of temperament to conduct disorders, and too little is =
known about how environmental factors shape the manifestations of =
temperament in conduct. In that vein, he urged that attention be paid to =
the development of methodologies that will allow us to accurately assess =
children's interpretation of their own experience. How a child will act =
and think as an adult may be dependent on the symbolic constructions =
children build up from their subjective experiences. Finally, Kagan =
urged the group to consider that while there may be some critical times =
in child development, there is no magic moment that sets a child's =
development. If environments change, people can change.
The Role of Schools
Economist Alan Krueger discussed the role of schools in producing human =
capital. His first observation was that almost no large-scale, =
controlled research on the relation between schools and their products =
has been done. Two exceptions are the Student-Teacher Achievement Ratio =
(STAR) study conducted on 11,600 students in Tennessee which looked at =
effects of classroom size and pupil-to-adult ratios--and a study of =
school vouchers in Milwaukee. The former study showed that smaller =
classrooms improved performance, especially in the first grade by about 5 =
percent and the effects were strongest for the most disadvantaged =
children. The addition of a classroom aide helped slightly.
The voucher study found that math scores were better for children who =
used vouchers to attend private school, but reading scores were slightly =
better for public school children. Smaller-scale research tends to find =
a small relationship between what Dr. Krueger termed "school inputs and =
school outputs." The most salient outcome of the research is that years =
of school correlates directly with earning power, adding about 10 percent =
for each year in school. Income is increased somewhat more by having =
attended a good school. Behind these general findings, however, is much =
variation along both regional and temporal lines. Moreover, the paucity =
of good large studies is accentuated by the near-non-existence of large =
longitudinal studies of effects of schooling. There is, therefore, a =
need for large, controlled studies of schooling that follow subjects =
through their lives and yield information not just about immediate =
effects of schooling but also about long-term outcomes.
Research on Low-Income Children's Health
Economist Jonathan Gruber focused on research related to improving the =
health of low-income children. One-fourth of the 40 million uninsured in =
the U.S. are children. And half the women and children in this country =
are eligible for Medicaid. While half the women and children in the =
country are not on Medicaid, there is a preventive effect of mere =
eligibility. It increases annual doctor visits by 50 percent and saves =
about 4,000 lives. The cost of saving a child under Medicaid is about =
$1.6 million. The value of an adult life is between $4 and $7 million. =
By that standard, Medicaid is saving lives at a reasonable cost. But =
another way to view the cost of a life saved is that the same investment =
would allow 300 children to attend Head Start. The key to making =
Medicaid most beneficial to children is targeting resources to those who =
most need them. But accomplishing such targeting is a huge challenge =
with no single best way to do it. It has been hard to identify children =
who would be unable to have alternative health insurance. Also, eligible =
women tend to be signed up for Medicaid by their hospital by the time =
they leave the hospital. Ideally, those who need Medicaid should be =
signed up before they enter the hospital. More research is needed to =
discover the combination of incentives and disincentives that will get =
those who need it onto Medicaid and keep those who have other means of =
paying for their health needs off of it.
The Developing Brain
Psychologist William Greenough discussed his research which established =
that experience causes brain development. In normal brain development, =
the young brain overproduces brain cells and connections. For example, =
the number of spines per unit of dendrite rises in the monkey's brain =
until eight months of age, and then decreases. Over time, the brain =
pares back these cells. The human frontal cortex adds synapses until =
about age eight and then begins to pare back. Experience influences what =
will be the appropriate number of cells and connections for a given =
brain. There are critical periods for some types of brain development. =
For example, artificial deprivation of sight in one eye early in =
development can cause permanent loss of vision in that eye. Such =
deprivation later in life will have no effect on ability to see. While =
there may be critical periods in some instances, experiences throughout =
the lifespan can increase the number of synapses. =
The quality of information to which one is exposed and that one acquires =
is reflected throughout life in the brain storage mechanisms. In Dr. =
Greenough's research, rats living in an enriched learning environment =
produced 20 to 25 percent more synapses per neuron than did rats in =
normal learning environments. Capillaries also change with the result =
that in enriched environments, more blood gets to each cell than occurs =
in normal environments. Greenough's research shows that physical =
exercise is also a factor in increasing vascular flow even in the brain. =
But intellectual stimulation is the important factor in increasing the =
number of synapses. The brain can be developed throughout life, but the =
greatest gains will come from starting early.
Language Development
=
Psycholinguist Elizabeth Bates spoke on language development from cradle =
to grave. Her research on language development mapped well onto =
Greenough's picture of brain development in that language development can =
be a lifelong event. There is very rapid development during the period =
of brain cell overproduction early in life. And experience is critical =
in how this development proceeds. But the driver behind strong early =
language development can be simple. Parents who read and talk regularly =
to their children promote early language development. Between eight and =
ten months, babies have acquired speech perception and have begun to =
achieve word comprehension. By 12-13 months, they can produce words.
At 16-20 months, there is accelerated vocabulary acquisition. By 18-20 =
months, word combinations appear, and there is grammaticization by 24-30 =
months. This is the groundwork. Vocabulary expansion, reorganization of =
discourse, and improvement of access to words and grammatical structures, =
however, continue to develop throughout life. There are huge individual =
differences in pace of development, but there is enough evidence now that =
it is possible to construct the equivalent of growth-range charts for =
language development milestones.
A percentage of children have specific language impairments, and the =
impairments can be severe enough that language development deficits are =
greater with these children than with children who experience brain =
lesions through traumatic injury. It has been assumed that children are =
more able to recover from such brain injuries than are adults. But the =
only good study of resilience yields a U shaped function with the effects =
of lesions being much more critical between the ages of 1 and 4 than they =
are either before age 1 or after age 4. Language does not map easily =
onto the brain. Many areas control aspects of language, and how they =
interact is far from well understood. The current state of linguistic =
understanding points up a variety of research needs. More needs to be =
known about normal and abnormal neuroanatomy and physiology. Registries =
for rare disorders are needed so that these disorders can be studied. =
Shared databases need to be developed, and inter-site research conducted =
along with data pooling. In research, there needs to be a focus both on =
language acquisition and language development. For example, views about =
second language learning are based on little evidence. The research =
suggests that acquisition, use, and the influence of one language on the =
other are complex matters that are influenced by a host of factors that =
are not well understood. There has been too much reliance on English as =
the language for linguistic study when English is odd among the languages =
of the world. Our linguistic understanding needs to be based on research =
in many languages. Similarly, more computer-based simulations of =
language acquisition and development are needed. And researchers should =
emphasize the notion of brain plasticity in their work rather than =
artificially restrict their exploration with overly rigid notions of =
genetic determinism or critical periods.
=
Cognitive Development
Cognitive psychologist Robert Siegler focused on cognitive development =
during the school-age years and used acquisition of mathematics concepts =
to illustrate his points. Dr. Bates summarizes a key finding of his =
research as "the rich get richer." Learning in general, and mathematics =
learning in particular, is like a series of overlapping waves. Through =
experience, children acquire a variety of ways to think about problems. =
The ways vary greatly in their level of sophistication, but once acquired =
become part of the repertoire of available tools. What separates one =
child from another (and one culture and one socioeconomic group from =
another it seems) is how early discovery of advanced ways of thinking =
occurs. What this suggests is that much of what one learns is the =
product of one's thought process. Typically, we approach a problem with =
a strategy. We take an action. That generates an outcome which, in =
turn, tells us something about our strategy. Children who start with the =
right strategy learn more and learn faster. Differences in the goodness =
of selected strategies can have little early effect in development of =
sophistication in mathematics, for example, but the effect cascades or =
snowballs over time. Thus, slow initial learning can substantially =
retard later learning. Studies show that there are socioeconomic =
differences in the U.S. (but not necessarily in other countries) in the =
early acquisition of sophisticated problem solving strategies. The U.S. =
overall has low mean performance in mathematics, however, suggesting that =
our general approach to teaching problem solving strategies may not be =
consistent with the best methods for advancing cognitive development. =
For example, although there is little difference between U.S. and Chinese =
children in mathematical performance at age three, there are tremendous =
differences by age 5, and those differences grow wider through the school =
years. =
=
The implications for the U.S. include the need to afford children from =
low socioeconomic backgrounds many more early numerical experiences. =
Children in general should be encouraged to explain their underlying =
reasoning in approaching a problem, to explain why seemingly different =
strategies can bring one to the same end point, and why some seemingly =
plausible strategies don't work. When children explain to themselves why =
what is right is right and what is wrong is wrong, their learning =
improves. Dr. Siegler concluded that we fail to apply much of what we =
already know about cognitive development, and the large questions that we =
can describe but do not understand require more research.
=
School-to-Work Transition
Sociologist Marta Tienda provided the final course in the day's =
intellectual feast. In looking at the school-to-work transition, she =
asked the audience to consider whether the country can overcome =
socioeconomic differences and to consider race and ethnicity in answering =
the question. Members of racial and ethnic minorities are =
overrepresented among the non-college bound, and thus among those of =
lesser economic means. Without much research to back it up, a =
presidential commission in the 1970's said there was value to employment =
in high school. Later reports discounted the importance of work in high =
school. So the notion of school-to-work and its role in education is a =
source of disagreement. Dr. Tienda emphasized the need to get beneath =
the surface statistics to begin to see the role of school-to-work in the =
development of human capital.
The gross statistics say, for example, that White youths arrive in the =
labor market earlier than Hispanic and Black youths. But that is the =
case only if work while in school is measured. If work of school-aged =
youths who are not in school is counted, then Hispanics, who tend to drop =
out of school earlier than other groups, also enter the labor market =
earliest. They are followed by Whites. Blacks are more likely than =
Hispanics or Whites to go to school and not work. By age 26, Blacks and =
Hispanics show a dip in full-time employment while Whites continue to =
rise. Early non-school associated entry to the labor market for Blacks =
and Hispanics can mean higher income early in work life, but lack of =
development of strong premarket work skills means that this advantage =
drops away quickly. Concentration on developing these premarket skills =
can mean a longer period of schooling but also a more effective labor =
market entry. A simple fact comes to the fore in the school-to-work =
transition discussion: The biggest human capital return comes simply =
from staying in school. That, and the fact that there are important =
racial and ethnic differences in schooling, skill acquisition, and labor =
force entry patterns must be taken into account in any research on the =
transition from schooling to work.
=
The day's speakers demonstrated that human capital is a rich and =
exciting research concept. Will that enthusiasm result in equally =
enthusiastic creation of new human capital research opportunities? The =
Clinton administration's current interest in child-centered research =
suggests that such programs could enjoy favor right now. What is needed =
is a strategy for moving from an exciting meeting to equally exciting =
program implementation plans. =
Briefly Speaking
New HHS, NIH and DOD Research Grants Available
The Health and Human Services Department's Administration for Children =
and Families is inviting applications for projects to combat domestic =
violence. Funding available includes $50,000 for up to four 17-month =
projects to develop services for immigrant and migrant battered women; =
$75,000 for up to four 17-month projects to develop models for services =
to help victims of domestic violence applying for or receiving welfare =
move into the work force; $600,000 for first year funding of a =
cooperative agreement for a special issue resource center to help Indian =
tribes and tribal organizations deal with domestic violence and aid =
victims; and $75,000 per institution for each of four institutions to =
fund four fellowships of $11,250 and a faculty coordinator at $30,000.
Eligibility varies by priority, but generally state and local public =
agencies, territories, federally recognized tribes and native American =
communities, private nonprofit agencies, domestic violence advocacy =
organizations and coalitions; and, for training, historically black =
colleges and universities, Hispanic-serving institutions and tribal =
institutions.
For more information, contact Trudy Hairston, (202) 401-5319; James =
Gray, (202) 401-5705; or William Riley, (202) 401-5529, Administration =
for children and Families, Office of Community Services, 370 L'Enfant =
Promenade SW, Washington, DC 20447. Refer to OCS 97-07. The CFDA number =
is 93.592.
The National Institute on Aging has between $2.5 million and $3 million =
to fund Edward Roybal Centers for Research on Applied Gerontology. This =
funding will support six centers that foster translation of basic =
behavioral and social science research theories and findings into =
practical outcomes to benefit older persons. Domestic for-profit and =
nonprofit organizations are eligible. Letters of intent are due July 24; =
Applications deadline is October 24.
For more information, contact Jared Jobe, Behavioral and Social =
Research, National Institute on Aging, 7201 Wisconsin Ave., Room 533, MSC =
9205, Bethesda, MD 20892-9205; (301) 496-3137; fax (301) 402-0051; =
e-mail, Jared_Jobe who-is-at nih.gov. Refer to RFA AG 97-005. =
The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism is seeking =
applications for FY 1999 awards for alcohol research centers to conduct =
interdisciplinary research on alcoholism and alcohol abuse. Three awards =
are available for a total of $1.7 million for both nonprofit and =
for-profit organizations, including universities and colleges. Deadline =
for letters of intent is Nov. 19, and Dec. 19 for applications.
For m ore information, contact Ernestine Vanderveen, Centers Program, =
NIAAA, Willco Bldg., Suite 402, 6000 Executive Blvd., MSC 7003, Bethesda, =
MD 20892-7003, (301) 443-2530; fax (301) 594-0673: e-mail, =
tvander who-is-at willco.niaaa.nih.gov. Refer to RFA AA 97-005.
The Department of Defense is seeking proposals to increase university =
research related to national defense by supporting purchase of costly =
research equipment. Approximately $45 million is available for FY 1998. =
Another $44 million will be awarded for FY 1999. Awards are for =
instrumentation in the $50,000 to $1 million range.
U.S. institutions of higher education with degree-granting programs in =
science, math or engineering are eligible to apply. Proposals from =
historically black colleges and universities are being encouraged. =
Proposals should address the impact of the equipment on the institution's =
ability to educate students through research in disciplines important to =
DOD missions. Funds are to be used to acquire major equipment to augment =
current or develop new research capabilities to support research in =
technical areas of interest to sponsoring agencies. Health and life =
sciences areas range from chemical and biological sciences in the Army =
Research Institute to cognitive and neural sciences and biological and =
biomedical sciences in the Office of Naval Research, to chemistry and =
life science, chronobiology and bioenvironmental sciences at the Air =
Force Office of Scientific Research. Application deadline is August 22.
For more information, contact Maj. Linda Steel-Goodwin, AFOSR/NI, 110 =
Duncan Ave., Room B115, Bolling Air Force Base, Washington, D.C. =
20332-8050, (202) 767-8069. For the full proposal see: =
http://web.fie.com/htdoc/fed/afr/afo/edu/text/any/afrdurip.htm. The =
announcement number is AFOSR BAA 97-3.
NIMH Reorganizing To Focus on Special Research Areas
NIMH Director Steven Hyman announced at the last NIMH Advisory Council =
meeting in mid-May that three new divisons are being proposed to more =
efficiently administer research in NIMH's special areas of emphasis. The =
three proposed divisions are the Division of Mental Disorders, Behavioral =
and AIDS Research; the Division of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience; and, =
the Division of Edpidemiology Services and Intervention Research. These =
new divisions will replace the current Division of Neuroscience and =
Behavioral Science; the Division of Clinical and Treatment Research; and =
the Division of Epidemiology and Services Research.
=
Hyman said it was necessary to reorganize because science and public =
health needs are changing. Especially obvious is the change in health =
care delivery. He added that decisions are being made by corporate =
benefit managers and others who need a different kind of data. "It =
requires bringing both domains together," he said.
The reorganization will incorporate the four areas of research emphasis =
chosen by NIMH. They are as follows:
=F9Basic research in molecular biology, neuroscience, genetics, and =
behavior
=F9Translational research designed to speed new basic knowledge into =
clinical applications
=F9Controlled efficacy studies, real-world outcome assessments, and health=
=
services research
=F9Focused policy-relevant research and targeted research dissemination =
activities =